Reducing School Violence Through Conflict Essay

It is alarming how more and more violent acts are being done by young students these days. A lot of factors can influence them and can be blamed but still there are not enough programs or ways to stop these acts. Everyone, including the media, community, and government, should be involved in this situation because these young people do not realize the graveness and seriousness of their outrages. There is an interrelation between preventing violence and resolving conflict (Johnson & Johnson, 1995, p. 5). This is seen with Project Schools Teaching Options for Peace (S. T. O. P) and The Safe Harbor Program. The former is a conflict resolution program while the latter deals with anti-violence. The two programs produced positive results in that it gave students the opportunity to change with regard to the way they see things. It gave them the chance to talk about what they were dealing and to resolve their conflicts. It made them understand themselves better, as well as to understand their environment and the people that surrounds them better. It made them feel that they are not alone and that there is help when they need it. Young adults or teenagers have a lot on their minds that most older people do not understand. At times, these young people are misunderstood and, therefore, ignored. The problem is, when they are ignored, it is the time when they would probably do things that they would soon regret. This is the reason why it is important that programs that would provide help and support should always be available especially to students. It may seem like a small step but to these young people, knowing that someone is there for them actually means a lot. Reference Johnson, D. W. & Johnson, R. T. (1995). Reducing School Violence Through Conflict

Animal Experiments

Some people think animal experimentation should be stopped because it is cruel. Others think it is necessary for the development of science. Discuss both view and give your own opinion. Animals were friend of humanity at different times of the human history. In modern times, experiments upon animals have long been a breeding ground for spirited debate. Some animal right activists argue that we should ban animal experiments altogether because putting animals through experimentation is unjustifiable on moral grounds. Yet some other people contend that the advancement of science necessitates animal testing. Personally, I believe both their views have merit and demerit. Granted, empirical evidence suggests that many animal experiments are performed callously without any attention to the discomfort or pain that laboratory mammals endure. First and foremost, improper confinement of test animals such as locking them up in cramped cages is inhumane. It can gravely disrupt natural biological functions of the test animal. Further, the effects of vaccination and vivisection conducted on live mammals can be chilling. They may, in some case, even constitute sheer torture of live animals. However, from a more pragmatic perspective, evidence bounds that animal subjects are still an indispensable part at this point. In the first place, it is manifest that drug experimentation on live mammals is far more effective than experimentation on bacteria or on other lower species in testing drug safety. In the second place, in space research, live animals are still the only practical alternative to humans in testing living creature reaction to outer-space experience on a flight not considered to be sufficiently safe for human astronauts. Lastly, lab research about the behavioral tendencies of chimpanzees, gorillas and other members of the primate group is also necessary. It produces outcomes which consistently advance anthropological and genetic studies. To conclude, I concede that experiments upon animals may induce suffering to the test animals. However, I am convinced that there are no feasible alternatives to this methodology at the current stage of scientific development. On balance, I think that we should allow animals testing to be continued but at the same time we use techniques such as anesthetic to minimize the pain of the test animal.

Analyse the ways in which the themes of intimidation Essay

Analyse the ways in which the themes of intimidation and persecution are presented in the crucible.  In Arthur Miller’s play, he uses a lot of intimidation and persecution. Intimidation means that someone is made small, powerless and weak. Persecution is when someone is being hurt or picked on because of their race, religion, appearance, political views or if their different to everyone else. Intimidation and persecution link to the play as people were being accused of witchcraft and they felt powerless and hurt, as they were different in some way. Take Tituba for example, she was made powerless and was whipped because of her race and her status. Miller presents the play as an allegory, which has an underlying meaning as well as a literal meaning. Firstly, the underlying meaning is the McCarthy trials towards the communists, and people lost their lives over a dishonest politician. Secondly, the literal meaning is the witch trials in Salem and people lost their lives all because of lies. They both link as people lost their lives over silly things. The Historical context is about Salem and the witch trials; The Crucible took place in the 17th century in Salem. Girls felt ill in Massachusetts, no one could explain the illness so everyone thought it was the devil and witchcraft. There were many puritans who blamed the devil and often blamed people of devil worshiping if they took part in sinful activities such as dancing. Many people were accused of being a witch with no evidence; nineteen people and two dogs were convicted and hanged. One man was crushed to death as he refused to admit he was a witch. To avoid being accused of being a witch they said that there neighbour. The girls felt better and the hysteria died down. The Literary context is about Miller and McCarthyism; McCarthyism is making accusations of disloyalty, of pro-communist activity, in many instances unsupported by proof or irrelevant evidence. Joseph McCarthy led America to become anti-communists, as communism was Russian. America was scared of Russia because of the cold war. McCarthy put many people on trial including Miller, he was accused of being a communist as he refused to answer questions. These link to the three scenes I have chosen as they show the history, such as the girls were ill, witchcraft, devils and deaths. Miller also links the literary context to the three scenes I have chosen, such as McCarthyism and trials.  Firstly I have chosen Act 1. Miller presents intimidation from the beginning of the scene, â€Å"I- do believe there was some movement-in the soup.† This shows Parris is being intimidated as the stage directions in front said fearful; you can tell he is fearful as the quotation has hyphens, which indicates a shocked pause. Abigail’s cousin, Betty, is in bed felling ill. Hale is desperate to know if the devil is involved. Abigail blames Tituba, â€Å"I never call him! Tituba, Tituba†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Abigail is persecuting Tituba as she has a lower status then her. There is an ellipsis at the end of the quotation; this shows that there is a pause. Abigail and Hale spoke about what happened in the forest. Abigail lies â€Å"I never sold myself! I’m a good girl! I’m proper girl!† Miller shows Abigail is getting angry because there are explanation marks at the end of each sentence. It is dramatic irony, the audience know that Abigail had an affaire with John but the characters don’t. Tituba then enters the room; Abigail then blames Tituba again, â€Å"She makes me drink blood! †¦She makes me laugh at prayer!† Miller shows Abigail persecuting Tituba as she treats her unfairly because of her race and status, she also uses Tituba to cover up her story. Hale now thinks that Tituba has sent her spirit upon Betty. Tituba disagrees, â€Å"I love me Betty!† Tituba is getting angry; it also shows Tituba getting annoyed because there’s an explanation mark in the quotation. Tituba’s pronouns are mixed up because she’s from the Caribbean. Parris wants Tituba to confess, â€Å"You will confess yourself or I will take you out and whip you to your death, Tituba!† This shows Parris was persecuting Tituba as he was going to hurt her. You can tell he was shouting, as there’s an explanation mark at the end of the quote. Tituba loses her power â€Å"terrified falls to her knees† Tituba’s scared she doesn’t want to get hurt so she falls on her knees with no power and confesses, this is intimidation as she feels small and is literarily small, she wants someone to comfort her like her childhood. Tituba lies to save her life. Hale is trying to get answers out of Tituba, â€Å"Who came to you with the devil? Two? Three? Four? How many?† Hale is asking short questions to find out about the devil, before the quote stage directions said kindly this shows Hale wasn’t trying to scare Tituba. Tituba is getting all the attention and Abigail is jealous â€Å"I want to open myself †¦ I want the light of God† Abigail has changed her mind as earlier Abigail said she never called the devil. Then Betty wakes and started shouting names that she supposedly saw with the devil. The curtain falls with hysteria.

Critial Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Critial Review - Essay Example It is accepted that his concentration on Alf Laylah in particular to expand his thesis and Arab Islamic culture in general is the main point of the exercise. 1. The narratives of Alf Laylah (The Arabian Nights) are literary representations of traditional folktales. They were also probably in told orally at the time the book was being written. Scribes and clerics wrote them, using insha which can be termed style (rhetorical, bombastic, colored by the male viewpoint of the clerics and their religious nature in the Arab Moslem world at the time. 2. Folklore is learned by those who know it and share it, it encompasses all aspects of the learning process of motivation, stimuli, response, retention, recall etc. So it needs to be looked at in terms of learning rather than explained via psychological interpretations. or society which own it, and the way in which they present it. El-Shamy is concerned that the folk traditions of Arab Islamic cultures have either been ignored or misinterpreted thus far in research, interpretation and indexing and so his intention is to put this right, by the creation of a new Motif Index. He cites his goal as follows: Typology and Classification: The crux of these can be explained simply. The scholars seeking to examine cultures and methods of identification of various aspects of folklore tradition set up ways to classify their findings. Two of these were tale-type and motif. The history of how these were devised and implemented for use then follows, with a reference to the Finnish folk epic Kalevala and its indexing. We learn that Antti Aarne, with a Historical-Georgraphical method, used the tale-type as a research tool, (circa 1910) and that Stith Thompson adapted this and expanded it in 1928 and 1961. The way it works is then explained at length, with much numbering and listing, and also with much digression into who else has had a try

Company analysis of sprint Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Company analysis of sprint - Essay Example The company is a major conglomerate that has acquired various smaller entities that provide mobile telecommunications, Internet and other wireless services. The company is a public entity that is traded on the New York Stock Exchange and its functions can be traced back to 1899 when Brown Telephone Company was founded to provide telephone services to Kansas. The company therefore has a lot of services that are provided by different specialized entities in the group. The main focus is on growing and expanding in order to enter profitable niches and sectors of the global telecommunication industry Sprint was founded by Cleyson Brown in 1899 and he sought to introduce telephone technology to his home state of Kansas and he did this by introducing Brown Telephone Company as a monopoly in Abilene, Kansas (Sprint Nextel para 2). The company expanded its services to different parts of the state of Kansas and by the end of the Second World War, Brown Telephone Company had a firm grip on the Southern USA markets. It expanded gradually to different parts of the United States and used aggressive growth strategies to penetrate into other parts of the American markets. By the mid-1970s the company had positioned itself as the largest independent local telephone company (Sprint Nextel para 3). Then the markets for long-distance communication grew in the 1980s through the introduction of digital and fiber-optic networks. Sprint moved to take the opportunity and invested in these new technologies. With time, the company became a pioneer in data collections and became the largest commercial packet data network in the United States in 1980. In the 1990s, Sprint grew to focus on consumer and business clients and this allowed them to specialize in the voice and data services. There was a merger in 1993 of Sprint and Centel which created the impetus for a local provider and wireless service that focused on long-distance communication.

Wed Class Cases due Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Wed Class Cases due - Assignment Example In fact, I can say that the success of the whole project lies on the design you produced. Currently, there is some distraction with technical composition of the project and that is taking up everyone’s focus. The details in the technical bit will enhance the design you come up with, therefore, as much as few comments arise currently, you are a key person in the success of this team. Hello Vander, this is an expression of my interest in the upcoming position is very high because I believe I have what it takes. I can support this because I have an engineering degree, record of accomplishment for excellence, excellent employee record, and adequate experience. I am exceptionally keen on customer satisfaction and aims at production of quality. I request for your support of my interest in this position because I believe you are focused on supporting the best talent for the position. On 3 April 2012, I paid for my electricity bill through mobile money specifications, but things never worked out. I stayed in darkness for several hours before opting to buy units through other means following several hours of trying to reach customer care in vain. My phone number is +4457898769 and I am requesting for a refund because, two weeks later, I have not received the tokens I had bought. Dear Sir, following the information customers has been receiving recently regarding warranties; it means that there is more information to the customers than our company ever expected. This is not a good thing for the reputation of our company, as the customers will soon look at our company as swindlers, especially if we do not deliver the promise we make to them. It is not appropriate forging ahead with the efforts of training the sales team if the company has to save its reputation from negative opinions of customers. Social media has become a great way for executives meeting with their clients. That is what Opra Winfrey, Richard Branson and Donald Trump

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words - 1

Marketing - Essay Example Procter & Gamble has one of the largest portfolios of consumer brands that are commonly known in the household, such as Pampers, Tide, Ariel, Pantene, Bounty, Always, Folgers, Downy, Crest, Olay, Pringles, Actonel, Wella, lams, Gillette, and Charmin. Its community consists of over 138, 000 employees in over 80 countries worldwide, making P&G a company whose products reach households of different nationalities. The company started as a small, family-operated soap and candle business, which later transformed into a big transnational corporation that provides products and services of superior quality and value to consumers in more than 180 countries. Procter & Gamble is a Fortune 500, American global corporation based in Cincinnati Ohio whose focus of manufacturing is a wide range of consumer goods. As of 2008, it has placed itself as the 14th largest US company by profit and 23rd by revenue. In 2007, it was placed 10th in Fortune’s Most Admired Companies list.1 It was recorded t hat it spent more on U.S. advertising than any other company in 2007, doubling the $2.62 billion spent by General Motors.2 Procter & Gamble was founded in 1837 by William Procter, a candle maker, and James Gamble, a soap maker. William Procter was an immigrant from England while James Gamble was from Ireland who both settled in Cincinnati and met each other when they married sisters Olivia and Elizabeth Norris.3 As electricity became more and more common, the company stopped producing candles in 1920 and as it grew larger in the early 20th century, it began building factories in other parts of the United States because of a high demand of products outgrowing the Cincinnati facilities. P&G also became known for its research laboratories in the 1900s, in which chemists produced new products. It also pioneered in the area of market research, probing on product appeal and consumer needs. When radio became popular in the 1920s

Assess 'Reformasi' and the democratic transition in Indonesia Essay

Assess 'Reformasi' and the democratic transition in Indonesia - Essay Example An assessment is made of the ideals and goals of Reformasi and how these compare with the present reality. The conclusion identifies key issues facing the country. Indonesia is a Southeast Asian archipelago of over 12,000 islands, with a total population of 270 million, making it one of the largest Islamic nations in the world (CIA, 2007). A Dutch colony for over 350 years, it gained independence in 1945 under Sukarno, a nationalist leader who established a parliamentary government with him as its first President. By 1959, the government was struggling to contain three challenging threats: Islamism, communism, and militarisation. Sukarno established a â€Å"Guided Democracy† characterised by military-backed authoritarian rule, a non-aligned foreign policy, and socialist anti-modern economic policies, all of which proved chaotic and difficult to manage (Smith, 1999). Due to growing threats to peace and stability, the army staged a coup d’etat in 1965 under the leadership of Army Minister Suharto, who justified it as the only way to protect the nation from communism. Sukarno was deposed and on house arrest until his death in 1970. In 1967, Suharto was declared President and ruled Indonesia until his resignation in May 1998, succeeded by his hand-picked successor, B.J. Habibie, who initiated the period of reform in Indonesian politics. During his short term, he allowed parliamentary elections, granted independence to East Timor, and in October 1999 handed the Presidency to Abdurrahman Wahid, who in July 2001 stepped down on charges of corruption and handed power to Megawati, Sukarno’s daughter. When her term ended in late 2004, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono or SBY, a retired Army general who played a key role in 1998 became the country’s first democratically elected President (Soesastro et al., 2003; McGibbon, 2006). Indonesia’s recent history could be divided into three

Vietnamese History in the 20th Century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Vietnamese History in the 20th Century - Essay Example Vietnam, however, suffered more internal repression as it was internally isolated because of continued cold war. With the helm of President Dwight Eisenhower and John Kennedy, Vietnam was able to make economic policy reforms, that have made it enjoy marked economic growth and reduced political repression, but corruption was still evident. The leadership styles of these leaders have had both effective and ineffective qualities. Vietnam was under the rule of France, for the better part of the 20th century. Geneva conference of 1954 left Vietnam divided, with the North being ruled by Ho Chi Minh of the communist government and the South being ruled by Ngo Dinh Diem, who was supported by the US. Between 1954 and 1975, the 2nd Indochina War between Vietnam’s Peoples Army and Vietnam Congress from the North brought Vietnam unification but under communist rule, with the south being supported by the US. With US military support, the southerners were able to maintain their independence. Two years later, US forces withdrew and South Vietnam fell again to the communists. During the times that the US were involved in the war, it is estimated that 3 million people lost their lives while 4 million were seriously injured. In 1978 to 1989, the international isolation of Vietnam extended its relations with the United States. The US barred normal ties with Vietnam for as long their forces remained in Cambodia, besides citing its minimal cooperation so as to account for Americans missing in action, as an obstacle to their relations.  

Engineering Managment Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Engineering Managment - Coursework Example The company has been operating in the market for almost 200 years. Despite economic crises that have affected the world from time to time, the company is still standing strong in the market. Moreover, the company has always also remained focused on its mission, objectives and strategies. The objectives of a company generally depend upon the business situations. Similarly, the business objectives of Cadbury have changed over the years according to the market situations. Cadbury has always relied on short term goals, rather than the long term objectives. However, their short term goals have changed on an average of 10 years. For example, the objective of the company during its initial years (1824-1850) was to open a Cadbury shop and increase its profitability. Their objective from 1850-1900 was to use new technology to increase the production. The company has been able to fulfil most of its objectives till now and the current objective of the company is to maintain the level it has already reached. The strategy of the company to achieve its goals is very much straight forward. The business strategy of the company is to tap new markets for its products and increase its profitability. Nevertheless, since most of the products of the company are sold all over the world, it has formulated a two-pronged growth strategy, which is dependent upon the cash flow of the company. In addition, the company is also looking forward to new channels of product distribution in order to increase sales. Since, 70 % of the total sales of the company come from impulse purchase that is why the company is also targeting restaurants, pubs and petrol stations to sell their products. Apart from the mission statements, strategies and objective the organizational culture of a company plays a crucial role in its success. In addition, the working practice and the areas which provide the company an

Homeostasis and Pain Management in Patient with Multisystem Failure Essay

Homeostasis and Pain Management in Patient with Multisystem Failure - Essay Example Consequently, obtaining the blood pressure, respiration rate, pulse rate and temperature will reveal the vital symptoms of whatever ailments that the patient is suffering from. Determining the oxygenation of Mrs. Baker is extremely essential; this can be executed by the use of the pulse oximeter. Place the pulse oximeter on the index finger and observe the patient’s skin color, the beds of the finger nails, and also the skin around the lips (Poitout, 2004). The time intervals for capillary refills should be noted while also assessing the beds of the fingernails. Current level of consciousness should be determined by assessing the reactivity of pupils, orientation to person, time and place; ask the patient questions to estabish the state of the mind. Symptoms and signs of dehydration together with skin turgor, decreased blood pressure, lethargy, sunken eyes, confusion, dizziness, and dry mucous membranes must be investigated (Poitout, 2004). The pain levels of the patient can b e assessed successfully when the patient is in a conscious state and when he/she can still speak; for instance, the pain of the patient can be rated on a scale of 1 to 10. ... Furthermore, there is a standard standing order for intravenous medication in such situations, in this regard it important and a must to start an IV. The lab personnel must be ordered to be drawn off of the IV. Technological tools used, why they are used, and importance of the tools in determining the patient’s status Tools and technology to be used in the diagnosis include, pulse oximeter, stethoscope, glucose meter, Sphygmomanometer, Laryngoscopes, Stylets, and tracheal tubes The pulse oximeter is a medical device essential for measuring or monitoring indirectly the patient’s blood oxygen saturation, and blood volume changes in the skin. The pulse oximeter is also useful as it displays the patient’s pulse rate (Niles, 2010). The pulse oximeter is a vital tool especially in the event where patient’s oxygenation is unstable or compromised like in the intensive care unit, operating, emergency and in ward settings. As already mentioned, the tool helps in ass essing the patient’s need for oxygen and determining if there is any need for supplemental oxygen (Niles, 2010). The oxygenation levels of Mrs. Baker will be evaluated and recorded by the pulse oximeter. A stethoscope is an acoustic device used in hospitals for listening to sounds produced from within a human body or animal (Niles, 2010). In this regard, the instrument is indispensable in listening to sounds produced by lungs, heart, intestines together with blood flow in the veins and arteries. In this case scenario, the stethoscope will be used to determine the heartbeat rate, and the pulse rate of Mrs. Baker. The sphygmomanometer is vital in measuring the blood pressure by

Personality psychology Essay Example for Free

Personality psychology Essay

Terminator Wave Energy Devices

Terminator Wave Energy Devices 1.0 Executive Summary The offshore ocean wave energy resource, as a derivative form of solar energy, has considerable potential for making a significant contribution to the alternative usable energy supply.Wave power devices are generally categorized by the method used to capture the energy of the waves. They can also be categorized by location and power take-off system. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups; (1) Oscillating water Column (OWC) (2) Overtopping Devices (OTD) (3) Wave Activated Bodies (WAB); Locations are shoreline, near shore and offshore. This report discusses about Terminator wave energy devices which extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. These devices are typically onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. 2.0 Introduction Traditional sources of energy such as oil, gas, and coal are non-renewable. They also create pollution by releasing huge quantities of carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. In contrast, waves are a renewable source of energy that doesnt cause pollution. The energy from waves alone could supply the worlds electricity needs. The total power of waves breaking on the worlds coastlines is estimated at 2 to 3 million megawatts. In some locations, the wave energy density can average 65 megawatts per mile of coastline. The problem is how to harness wave energy efficiently and with minimal environmental, social, and economic impacts. Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the open expanse of water, the gravitational pull from the sun and moon, and changes in atmospheric pressure, earthquakes etc. Waves created by the wind are the most common waves and the waves relevant for most wave energy technology. Wave energy conversion takes advantage of the ocean waves caused primarily by the interaction of winds with the ocean surface. Wave energy is an irregular oscillating low-frequency energy source. They are a powerful source of energy, but are difficult to harness and convert into electricity in large quantities. The energy needs to be converted to a 60 or 50 Hertz frequency before it can be added to the electric utility grid. Part of the solar energy received by our planet is converted to wind energy through the differential heating of the earth. In turn part of the wind energy is transferred to the water surface, thereby forming waves. While the average solar energy depends on factors such as local climate and latitude, the amount of energy transferred to the waves and hence their resulting size depends on the wind speed, the duration of the winds and the duration over which it blows. The most energetic waves on earth happen to be between 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude, in general the waves generated are stronger on the southern parts of the countries (John brook, ECOR). Wave power devices extract energy directly from the surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. Wave power varies considerably in different parts of the world, and wave energy cant be harnessed effectively everywhere. It has been estimated that if less than 0.1% of the renewable energy available within the oceans could be converted into electricity, it would satisfy the present world demand for energy more than five times over. A variety of technologies are available to capture the energy from waves. Wave technologies have been designed to be installed in near shore, offshore, and far offshore locations. Offshore systems are situated in deep water, typically of more than 40 meters (131 feet). Types of power take-off include: hydraulic ram, elastomeric hose pump, pump-to-shore, hydroelectric turbine, air turbine and linear electrical generator. Some of these designs incorporate parabolic reflectors as a means of increasing the wave energy at the point of capture. 3.0 Type of Wave Energy Converters Ocean waves represent a form of renewable energy created by wind currents passing over open water. Many devices are being developed for exploiting wave energy. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups (Harris Robert E. et al.): Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) Waves cause the water column to rise and fall, which alternately compresses and depressurize an air column. The energy is extracted from the resulting oscillating air flow by using a Wells turbine Overtopping Devices (OTD) Ocean waves are elevated into a reservoir above the sea level, which store the water. The energy is extracted by using the difference in water level between the reservoir and the sea by using low head turbines Wave Activated Bodies (WAB) Waves activate the oscillatory motions of body parts of a device relative to each other, or of one body part relative to a fixed reference. Primarily heave, pitch and roll motions can be identified as oscillating motions whereby the energy is extracted from the relative motion of the bodies or from the motion of one body relative to its fixed reference by using typically hydraulic systems to compress oil, which is then used to drive a generator. The wave activated bodies (WABs) can be further categorized in sub-groups describing the energy extraction by the principle motion of the floating body (heave, pitch and roll). A variety of technologies have been proposed to capture the energy from waves based on above extraction methods; Some of the technologies that have been the target of recent developmental efforts and are appropriate for the offshore applications being considered are terminators, attenuators and point absorbers (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Figure 1: Schematic drawings of WEC devices for operating principles and principal locations(Harris Robert E. et al.) The many different types of wave energy converters (WECs) can be classified in to various ways depending on their horizontal size and orientation. If the size is very small compared to the typical wavelength the WEC is called a point absorber. In contrast if the size is comparable to or larger than the typical wavelength, the WEC is known as line absorber, this can also be referred to as terminator or attenuator. A WEC is called terminator or attenuator if it is aligned along or normal to the prevailing direction of the wave crest respectively (John brook, ECOR). The relationship between the three main classifications Principal Location Operating Principle Directional Characteristic: These classifications are shown in Figure 2, presenting the possible operating principles for the location and the directional characteristics. At the shoreline the only feasible operating principles are oscillating water columns and overtopping devices, which are terminators. Figure shows that at near shore and offshore, point absorber or attenuator devices can only be WABs, whilst for terminator devices all three categories of the operating principles are possible. OWCs and OTDs are ‘static’ energy converters of the terminator kind. As a result their mooring has to be stiff, restraining modes of motions but allowing for adjustment towards a parallel wave approach and for tidal ranges. The station keeping requirements for the mooring of wave activated bodies can be either static or dynamic. Figure 2: Possible operating principles for the principal location and directional characteristic 3.1 Attenuators Attenuators are long multi-segment floating structures oriented parallel to the direction of the wave travel. The differing heights of waves along the length of the device causes flexing where the segments connect, and this flexing is connected to hydraulic pumps or other converters (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). 3.2 Point Absorbers Point absorbers have a small horizontal dimension compared with the vertical dimension and utilize the rise and fall of the wave height at a single point for WEC (Harris Robert E. et al.). It is relatively small compared to the wave length and is able to capture energy from a wave front greater than the physical dimension of the absorber (James, 2007). The efficiency of a terminator or attenuator device is linked to their principal axis being, according, parallel or orthogonal to the incoming wave crest. The point absorber does not have a principal wave direction and is able to capture energy from waves arriving from any direction. As a consequence the station keeping for the terminator and attenuator has to allow the unit to weathervane into the predominant wave direction, but this is not necessary for the point absorber (Harris Robert E. et al.). 3.3 Terminators A Terminator has its principal axis parallel to the incident wave crest and terminates the wave. These devices extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. The reflected and transmitted waves determine the efficiency of the device (Harris Robert E. et al.). These devices are typically installed onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). There are mainly two types in Terminator WEC. 3.3.1 Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) The oscillating water column (OWC) is a form of terminator in which water enters through a subsurface opening into a chamber with air trapped above it. The wave action causes the captured water column to move up and down like a piston to force the air through an opening connected to a turbine (U.S. Department of the Interior May 2006). The device consists essentially of a floating or (more usually) bottom-fixed structure, whose upper part forms an air chamber and whose immersed part is open to the action of the sea. The reciprocating flow of air displaced by the inside free surface motion drives an air turbine mounted on the top of the structure. 3.3.1.1 Efficiency of Oscillating Water Column (OWC) The efficiency of oscillating water column (OWC) wave energy devices are particularly affected by flow oscillations basically for two reasons. (1) Because of intrinsically unsteady (reciprocating) flow of air displaced by the oscillating water free surface. (2) Because of increasing the air flow rate, above a limit depending on, and approximately proportional to, the rotational speed of the turbine, is known to give rise to a rapid drop in the aerodynamic efficiency and in the power output of the turbine. A method which has been proposed to partially circumvent this problem consists in controlling the pitch of the turbine rotor blades in order to prevent the instantaneous angle of incidence of the relative flow from exceeding the critical value above which severe stalling occurs at the rotor blades (see Gato and FalcaËÅ"o, 1991). Although considered technically feasible (Salter, 1993) this has never been implemented at full scale owing to mechanical difficulties. Alternately, the flow rate through the turbine can be prevented from becoming excessive by equipping the device with air valves. Two different schemes can be envisaged, in the first one, the valves are mounted between the chamber and the atmosphere in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valves, on or near the roof of the air chamber structure) and are made to open (by active or passive control) in order to prevent the overpressure (or the under pressure) in the chamber to exceed a limit which is defined by the aerodynamic characteristics of the turbine at its instantaneous speed. In the second scheme a valve is mounted in series with the turbine in the duct connecting the chamber and the atmosphere. Excessive flow rate is prevented by partially closing the valve. In both schemes, the air flow through the turbine is controlled at the expense of energy dissipation at the valves. Theoretically the two methods, if properly implemented, are equivalent from the point of view of limiting the flow rate through the turbine. However, the resulting pressure changes in the chamber are different (reduction and increase in pressure oscillations in the first and second cases, respectively). Consequently the hydrodynamic process of energy extraction from the waves is differently modified by valve operation in the two control methods. The main purpose of this work is to analyse theoretically the performance of an OWC wave energy device when valves are used to limit the flow through the turbine. Both schemes are considered and compared: a valve (or a set of valves) mounted in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valve) or a valve mounted in the turbine duct. The hydrodynamic analysis is done in the time domain for regular as well as for irregular waves. The spring-like effect due to the compressibility of the air is taken into account and is discussed in some detail. Realistic characteristics are assumed for the turbine. Numerical results are presented for simple two-dimensional chamber geometry for whose hydrodynamic coefficients analytical expressions are known as functions of wave frequency. 3.3.2 Overtopping Devices (OTD) Overtopping devices have reservoirs that are filled by impinging waves to levels above the average surrounding ocean. The released reservoir water is used to drive hydro turbines or other conversion devices. Overtopping devices have been designed and tested for both onshore and floating offshore applications. It gathers the energy by waves overtopping into a raised reservoir, and extracting this by draining the water through low head turbines. OTD consists of three main elements: Two wave reflectors. Attached to the central platform these act to focus the incoming waves. The main platform. This is a floating reservoir with a doubly curved ramp facing the incoming waves. The waves overtop the ramp which has a variable crest freeboard 1 to 4 m and underneath the platform open chambers operate as an air cushion maintaining the level of the reservoir. Hydro turbines. A set of low head turbines converts the hydraulic head in the reservoir (Tedd James et al., 2005) 3.3.2.1 Overtopping theory The theory for modeling overtopping devices varies greatly from the traditional linear systems approach used by most other WECs. A linear systems approach may be used with overtopping devices. This considers the water oscillating up and down the ramp as the excited body, and the crest of the ramp as a highly non-linear power take off system. However due to the non-linearities it is too computationally demanding to model usefully. Therefore a more physical approach is taken. Figure 4 shows the schematic of flows for the Wave Dragon. Depending on the current wave state (HS, Tp) and the crest freeboard Rc(height of the ramp crest above mean water level, MWL) of the device, water will overtop into the reservoir Qovertopping. The power gathered by the reservoir is a product of this overtopping flow, the crest freeboard and gravity. If the reservoir is over filled when a large volume is deposited in the basin there will be loss from it Qspill. To minimize this, the reservoir level h must be kept below its maximum level hR. The useful hydraulic power converted by the turbines is the product of turbine flow Qturbine, the head across them, water density and gravity (Tedd James et al., 2005). In coastal engineering the average flow Q is converted into non dimensional form by dividing by the breadth of the device b, gravity g and the significant wave height HS: In the case of the floating OTD it has been seen that there is a dependency on the wave period. The dominant physical explanation for this is the effect of energy passing beneath the draft of the structure. Figure 6 Layout of OTD 3.3.2.2 Wave Reflector Wings One of the most distinctive aspects of the Overtopping WEC is the long slender wings mounted to the front corners of the reservoir platform. These are designed to reflect the oncoming waves towards the ramp. A wider section of wave is available to be exploited with only a moderate increase in capital cost. The overtopping volume in a wave is very dependent on the wave height; therefore by providing only a moderate increase in height, much more energy can overtop the ramp. In order to choose the correct lengths, angles, and position of these wings extensive computer modelling is used. Secondary bonuses of the presence of the wave reflector wings include: better weather-vaning performance to face the waves, lower peak mooring forces, and improved horizontal stability of the main platform. As the aft and rear mooring attachment points are separated further, the yaw of the platform is more stable. Therefore the device will not turn away from the predominant wave direction, and will also realign itself faster as when the wave direction changes (Tedd James et al., 2005). Lastly the reflectors wings act as stabilisers to the device. As they float under their own buoyancy they counteract any list of the platform. This is important as the more horizontal the platform is kept the less water is spilt and so the more efficient the device operation. 3.3.2.3 Low Head Turbines and Power Train Turbine operating conditions in a WEC are quite different from the ones in a normal hydro power plant. In the OTD, the turbine head range is typically between 1.0 and 4.0 m, which is on the lower bounds of existing water turbine experience. While there are only slow and relatively small variations of flow and head in a river hydro power plant, the strong stochastic variations of the wave overtopping call for a radically different mode of operation in the OTD. The head, being a function of the significant wave height, is varying in a range as large as 1:4, and the discharge has to be regulated within time intervals as short as ten seconds in order to achieve a good efficiency of the energy exploitation (Tedd James et al., 2005). On an unmanned offshore device, the environmental conditions are much rougher, and routine maintenance work is much more difficult to perform. Special criteria for the choice and construction of water turbines for the WEC have to be followed; it is advisable to aim for constructional simplicity rather than maximum peak efficiency. Figure 6 shows the application ranges of the known turbine types in a graph of head H vs. rotational speed nq. The specific speed nq is a turbine parameter characterizing the relative speed of a turbine, thus giving an indication of the turbines power density. Evidently, all turbine types except the Pelton and the cross flow type are to be found in a relatively narrow band running diagonally across the graph. Transgressing the left or lower border means that the turbine will run too slowly, thus being unnecessarily large and expensive. The right or upper border is defined by technological limits, namely material strength and the danger of cavitations erosion. The Pelton and the cross-flow turbine do not quite follow these rules, as they have a runner which is running in air and is only partially loaded with a free jet of water. Thus, they have a lower specific speed and lower power density. Despite its simplicity and robustness, the cross flow turbine is not very suitable for OTD applications (Tedd James et al., 2005). Figure 7 Head range of the common turbine types, Voith and Ossberger 3.3.2.4 Performance in Storms Survivability is essential, and Overtopping devices are naturally adapted to perform well in storm situations, where the wave will pass over and under the device with no potential end-stop problems. 3.3.2.5 Wave Prediction Performance of almost all wave energy converters can be improved with prediction of the incoming waves. The cost to implement would be low as the control hardware is typically in place, only the measuring system and improved control techniques need to be developed. To explain the concept behind the device a simple example can be used. If a measurement of some wavelengths ahead of the wave energy converter shows large waves passing, then at a given time later this energy will be incident on the device. The control of the device can then be altered quickly to extract this larger energy, e.g. by increasing hydraulic resistance to an oscillator’s motion allowing more energy to be captured within the stroke length, or by draining the reservoir of an overtopping device to allow for a large overtopping volume(Tedd James et al., 2005). The challenges are threefold; to implement a system for measuring the waves approaching the ramp, to accurately transform this into usable input for the control systems, and to construct new control strategies to make the best use of this. The standard approach for performing such deterministic sea-state prediction involves discrete frequency domain techniques. This is computationally intensive, as the two Fourier transforms must be made to convert from the time domain to the frequency domain and return to the time domain. 3.4 Energy Capture and Practical Limits The power captured from waves by the primary mechanical conversion (before secondary conversion to electrical power) can be related to the energy in the incoming waves over a certain width. Theoretical values have been established in some cases. For a heaving axi-symmetric body the maximum capture width is the inverse of the wave number. The capture width is often compared to the front width of the device. This width ratio can be larger than one for a point absorber with small dimensions compared to the wavelength. Viscous effects reduce efficiency. For an OWC, Wang et al. (2002) found that the capture width ratio may reach a value of 3 and above at an optimum wave period. For Pelamis, Retlzler et al. (2001) found a capture width up to 2 in regular waves and around one in random seas (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). A continuous or a semi discrete array of wave energy converters acting as an absorbing wall perpendicular to the wave direction is called a terminator and its capture width equals the width of the device and is not related to the length of the incident waves. As the wave conditions are stochastic, the tuning parameters of the energy converters are compromises between the optimum values at various sea conditions. The capture width must be established for each sea state. Fixed devices are subject to sea level variation according to tidal effects. This is critical for fixed oscillating water columns and fixed overtopping systems whose performances are dependent on the mean sea level. The intake of an OWC must be located at an optimised design level from the mean free surface. The height of an overtopping system is also optimised for sea states occurring at a given mean sea level. Therefore, sites with minimal tide are preferred. From this point of view floating devices are more suitable. The immersion of a floating device can also be tuned with respect to the actual sea state. For instance the Wave Dragon overtopping device is partially floating on air chambers and its draught can be modified (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). The performance of the overtopping device is sensitive to the distribution of the overtopping rate. The more variable the overtopping flow into the reservoir, the larger the capacity of the reservoir and turbines must be to achieve the same performance. 4.0 Mooring Requirements The two major requirements for a WEC mooring are to withstand the environmental and other loadings involved in keeping the device on station, and to be sufficiently cost effective so that the overall economics of the device remain viable. The following list shows the requirements that need to be considered for WEC moorings systems (Harris Robert E. et al.): The primary purpose of the mooring system is to maintain the floating structure on station within specified tolerances under normal operating load and extreme storm load conditions. The excursion of the device must not permit tension loads in the electrical transmission cable(s) and should allow for suitable specified clearance distances between devices in multiple installations. The mooring system must be sufficiently compliant to the environmental loading to reduce the forces acting on anchors, mooring lines and the device itself to a minimum; unless the stiffness of the mooring itself is an active element in the wave energy conversion principle used. All components must have adequate strength, fatigue life and durability for the operational lifetime, and marine growth and corrosion need to be considered. A degree of redundancy is highly desirable for individual devices, and essential for schemes which link several devices together. The system as a whole should be capable of lasting for 30 years or more, with replacement of particular components at no less than 5 years. The mooring must be sufficient to accommodate the tidal range at the installation location. The mooring system should allow the removal of single devices without affecting the mooring of adjacent devices. Removal of mooring lines for inspection and maintenance must be possible. The mooring must be sufficiently stiff to allow berthing for inspection and maintenance purposes. Contact between mooring lines must be avoided. The mooring should not adversely affect the efficiency of the device, and if it is part of an active control system it must also be designed dynamically as part of the overall WEC system. Revenues from WECs, in comparison to the offshore industry, are smaller and their economics more strongly linked to the location, installation costs and down time periods. The mooring system has an important impact on the economics and it is necessary to provide, at low installation cost, a reliable system that has little downtime and long intervals between maintenance. The suitability of design approaches from the offshore industry for WECs are ranked in Appendix I (Harris Robert E. et al.). 5.0 Environmental Considerations Conversion of wave energy to electrical or other usable forms of energy is generally anticipated to have limited environmental impacts. However, as with any emerging technology, the nature and extent of environmental considerations remain uncertain. The impacts that would potentially occur are also very site specific, depending on physical and ecological factors that vary considerably for potential ocean sites. As large-scale prototypes and commercial facilities are developed, these factors can be expected to be more precisely defined (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). The following environmental considerations require monitoring (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Visual appearance and noiseare device-specific, with considerable variability in visible freeboard height and noise generation above and below the water surface. Devices with OWCs and overtopping devices typically have the highest freeboard and are most visible. Offshore devices would require navigation hazard warning devices such as lights, sound signals, radar reflectors, and contrasting day marker painting. However, Coast Guard requirements only require that day markers be visible for 1 nautical mile (1.8 km), and thus offshore device markings would only be seen from shore on exceptionally clear days. The air being drawn in and expelled in OWC devices is likely to be the largest source of above-water noise. Some underwater noise would occur from devices with turbines, hydraulic pumps, and other moving parts. The frequency of the noise may also be a consideration in evaluating noise impacts. Reduction in wave height from wave energy converterscould be a consideration in some settings; however, the impact on wave characteristics would generally only be observed 1 to 2 km away from the WEC device in the direction of the wave travel. Thus there should not be a significant onshore impact if the devices were much more than this distance from the shore. None of the devices currently being developed would harvest a large portion of the wave energy, which would leave a relatively calm surface behind the devices. It is estimated that with current projections, a large wave energy facility with a maximum density of devices would cause the reduction in waves to be on the order of 10 to 15%, and this impact would rapidly dissipate within a few kilometers, but leave a slight lessening of waves in the overall vicinity. Little information is available on the impact on sediment transport or on biological communities from a reduction in wave height offshore. An isolated impact, such as reduced wave height for recreational surfers, could possibly result. Marine habitatcould be impacted positively or negatively depending on the nature of additional submerged surfaces, above-water platforms, and changes in the seafloor. Artificial above-water surfaces could provide habitat for seals and sea lions or nesting areas for birds. Underwater surfaces of WEC devices would provide substrates for various biological systems, which could be a positive or negative complement to existing natural habitats. With some WEC devices, it may be necessary to control the growth of marine organisms on some surfaces. Toxic releasesmay be of concern related to leaks or accidental spills of liquids used in systems with working hydraulic fluids. Any impacts could be minimized through the selection of nontoxic fluids and careful monitoring, with adequate spill response plans and secondary containment design features. Use of biocides to control growth of marine organisms may also be a source of toxic releases. Conflict with other sea space users, such as commercial shipping and fishing and recreational boating, can occur without the careful selection of sites for WEC devices. The impact can potentially be positive for recreational and commercial fisheries if the devices provide for additional biological habitats. Installation and Decommissioning: Disturbances from securing the devices to the ocean floor and installation of cables may have negative impacts on marine habitats. Potential decommissioning impacts are primarily related to disturbing marine habitats that have adapted to the presence of the wave energy structures. 6.0 Discussions A vast number of parameters influence (and interact with) the net power production from any WEC: Overtopping, determined by Free-board (adjustable in Wave Dragons) Actual wave height Physical dimension of the converter (ramps, reflectors etc. Outlet, determined by Size of reservoir Turbine design Turbine on/off strategy Mooring system, free or restricted orientation toward waves Size of the energy converter Wave climate Energy in wave front (kW/m) Distribution of wave heights Availability Theoretical availability; Reliability, maintainability, serviceab Terminator Wave Energy Devices Terminator Wave Energy Devices 1.0 Executive Summary The offshore ocean wave energy resource, as a derivative form of solar energy, has considerable potential for making a significant contribution to the alternative usable energy supply.Wave power devices are generally categorized by the method used to capture the energy of the waves. They can also be categorized by location and power take-off system. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups; (1) Oscillating water Column (OWC) (2) Overtopping Devices (OTD) (3) Wave Activated Bodies (WAB); Locations are shoreline, near shore and offshore. This report discusses about Terminator wave energy devices which extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. These devices are typically onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. 2.0 Introduction Traditional sources of energy such as oil, gas, and coal are non-renewable. They also create pollution by releasing huge quantities of carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. In contrast, waves are a renewable source of energy that doesnt cause pollution. The energy from waves alone could supply the worlds electricity needs. The total power of waves breaking on the worlds coastlines is estimated at 2 to 3 million megawatts. In some locations, the wave energy density can average 65 megawatts per mile of coastline. The problem is how to harness wave energy efficiently and with minimal environmental, social, and economic impacts. Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the open expanse of water, the gravitational pull from the sun and moon, and changes in atmospheric pressure, earthquakes etc. Waves created by the wind are the most common waves and the waves relevant for most wave energy technology. Wave energy conversion takes advantage of the ocean waves caused primarily by the interaction of winds with the ocean surface. Wave energy is an irregular oscillating low-frequency energy source. They are a powerful source of energy, but are difficult to harness and convert into electricity in large quantities. The energy needs to be converted to a 60 or 50 Hertz frequency before it can be added to the electric utility grid. Part of the solar energy received by our planet is converted to wind energy through the differential heating of the earth. In turn part of the wind energy is transferred to the water surface, thereby forming waves. While the average solar energy depends on factors such as local climate and latitude, the amount of energy transferred to the waves and hence their resulting size depends on the wind speed, the duration of the winds and the duration over which it blows. The most energetic waves on earth happen to be between 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude, in general the waves generated are stronger on the southern parts of the countries (John brook, ECOR). Wave power devices extract energy directly from the surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. Wave power varies considerably in different parts of the world, and wave energy cant be harnessed effectively everywhere. It has been estimated that if less than 0.1% of the renewable energy available within the oceans could be converted into electricity, it would satisfy the present world demand for energy more than five times over. A variety of technologies are available to capture the energy from waves. Wave technologies have been designed to be installed in near shore, offshore, and far offshore locations. Offshore systems are situated in deep water, typically of more than 40 meters (131 feet). Types of power take-off include: hydraulic ram, elastomeric hose pump, pump-to-shore, hydroelectric turbine, air turbine and linear electrical generator. Some of these designs incorporate parabolic reflectors as a means of increasing the wave energy at the point of capture. 3.0 Type of Wave Energy Converters Ocean waves represent a form of renewable energy created by wind currents passing over open water. Many devices are being developed for exploiting wave energy. The energy extraction methods or operating principles can be categorized into three main groups (Harris Robert E. et al.): Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) Waves cause the water column to rise and fall, which alternately compresses and depressurize an air column. The energy is extracted from the resulting oscillating air flow by using a Wells turbine Overtopping Devices (OTD) Ocean waves are elevated into a reservoir above the sea level, which store the water. The energy is extracted by using the difference in water level between the reservoir and the sea by using low head turbines Wave Activated Bodies (WAB) Waves activate the oscillatory motions of body parts of a device relative to each other, or of one body part relative to a fixed reference. Primarily heave, pitch and roll motions can be identified as oscillating motions whereby the energy is extracted from the relative motion of the bodies or from the motion of one body relative to its fixed reference by using typically hydraulic systems to compress oil, which is then used to drive a generator. The wave activated bodies (WABs) can be further categorized in sub-groups describing the energy extraction by the principle motion of the floating body (heave, pitch and roll). A variety of technologies have been proposed to capture the energy from waves based on above extraction methods; Some of the technologies that have been the target of recent developmental efforts and are appropriate for the offshore applications being considered are terminators, attenuators and point absorbers (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Figure 1: Schematic drawings of WEC devices for operating principles and principal locations(Harris Robert E. et al.) The many different types of wave energy converters (WECs) can be classified in to various ways depending on their horizontal size and orientation. If the size is very small compared to the typical wavelength the WEC is called a point absorber. In contrast if the size is comparable to or larger than the typical wavelength, the WEC is known as line absorber, this can also be referred to as terminator or attenuator. A WEC is called terminator or attenuator if it is aligned along or normal to the prevailing direction of the wave crest respectively (John brook, ECOR). The relationship between the three main classifications Principal Location Operating Principle Directional Characteristic: These classifications are shown in Figure 2, presenting the possible operating principles for the location and the directional characteristics. At the shoreline the only feasible operating principles are oscillating water columns and overtopping devices, which are terminators. Figure shows that at near shore and offshore, point absorber or attenuator devices can only be WABs, whilst for terminator devices all three categories of the operating principles are possible. OWCs and OTDs are ‘static’ energy converters of the terminator kind. As a result their mooring has to be stiff, restraining modes of motions but allowing for adjustment towards a parallel wave approach and for tidal ranges. The station keeping requirements for the mooring of wave activated bodies can be either static or dynamic. Figure 2: Possible operating principles for the principal location and directional characteristic 3.1 Attenuators Attenuators are long multi-segment floating structures oriented parallel to the direction of the wave travel. The differing heights of waves along the length of the device causes flexing where the segments connect, and this flexing is connected to hydraulic pumps or other converters (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). 3.2 Point Absorbers Point absorbers have a small horizontal dimension compared with the vertical dimension and utilize the rise and fall of the wave height at a single point for WEC (Harris Robert E. et al.). It is relatively small compared to the wave length and is able to capture energy from a wave front greater than the physical dimension of the absorber (James, 2007). The efficiency of a terminator or attenuator device is linked to their principal axis being, according, parallel or orthogonal to the incoming wave crest. The point absorber does not have a principal wave direction and is able to capture energy from waves arriving from any direction. As a consequence the station keeping for the terminator and attenuator has to allow the unit to weathervane into the predominant wave direction, but this is not necessary for the point absorber (Harris Robert E. et al.). 3.3 Terminators A Terminator has its principal axis parallel to the incident wave crest and terminates the wave. These devices extend perpendicular to the direction of wave travel and capture or reflect the power of the wave. The reflected and transmitted waves determine the efficiency of the device (Harris Robert E. et al.). These devices are typically installed onshore or near shore; however, floating versions have been designed for offshore applications. (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). There are mainly two types in Terminator WEC. 3.3.1 Oscillating Water Columns (OWC) The oscillating water column (OWC) is a form of terminator in which water enters through a subsurface opening into a chamber with air trapped above it. The wave action causes the captured water column to move up and down like a piston to force the air through an opening connected to a turbine (U.S. Department of the Interior May 2006). The device consists essentially of a floating or (more usually) bottom-fixed structure, whose upper part forms an air chamber and whose immersed part is open to the action of the sea. The reciprocating flow of air displaced by the inside free surface motion drives an air turbine mounted on the top of the structure. 3.3.1.1 Efficiency of Oscillating Water Column (OWC) The efficiency of oscillating water column (OWC) wave energy devices are particularly affected by flow oscillations basically for two reasons. (1) Because of intrinsically unsteady (reciprocating) flow of air displaced by the oscillating water free surface. (2) Because of increasing the air flow rate, above a limit depending on, and approximately proportional to, the rotational speed of the turbine, is known to give rise to a rapid drop in the aerodynamic efficiency and in the power output of the turbine. A method which has been proposed to partially circumvent this problem consists in controlling the pitch of the turbine rotor blades in order to prevent the instantaneous angle of incidence of the relative flow from exceeding the critical value above which severe stalling occurs at the rotor blades (see Gato and FalcaËÅ"o, 1991). Although considered technically feasible (Salter, 1993) this has never been implemented at full scale owing to mechanical difficulties. Alternately, the flow rate through the turbine can be prevented from becoming excessive by equipping the device with air valves. Two different schemes can be envisaged, in the first one, the valves are mounted between the chamber and the atmosphere in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valves, on or near the roof of the air chamber structure) and are made to open (by active or passive control) in order to prevent the overpressure (or the under pressure) in the chamber to exceed a limit which is defined by the aerodynamic characteristics of the turbine at its instantaneous speed. In the second scheme a valve is mounted in series with the turbine in the duct connecting the chamber and the atmosphere. Excessive flow rate is prevented by partially closing the valve. In both schemes, the air flow through the turbine is controlled at the expense of energy dissipation at the valves. Theoretically the two methods, if properly implemented, are equivalent from the point of view of limiting the flow rate through the turbine. However, the resulting pressure changes in the chamber are different (reduction and increase in pressure oscillations in the first and second cases, respectively). Consequently the hydrodynamic process of energy extraction from the waves is differently modified by valve operation in the two control methods. The main purpose of this work is to analyse theoretically the performance of an OWC wave energy device when valves are used to limit the flow through the turbine. Both schemes are considered and compared: a valve (or a set of valves) mounted in parallel with the turbine (by-pass or relief valve) or a valve mounted in the turbine duct. The hydrodynamic analysis is done in the time domain for regular as well as for irregular waves. The spring-like effect due to the compressibility of the air is taken into account and is discussed in some detail. Realistic characteristics are assumed for the turbine. Numerical results are presented for simple two-dimensional chamber geometry for whose hydrodynamic coefficients analytical expressions are known as functions of wave frequency. 3.3.2 Overtopping Devices (OTD) Overtopping devices have reservoirs that are filled by impinging waves to levels above the average surrounding ocean. The released reservoir water is used to drive hydro turbines or other conversion devices. Overtopping devices have been designed and tested for both onshore and floating offshore applications. It gathers the energy by waves overtopping into a raised reservoir, and extracting this by draining the water through low head turbines. OTD consists of three main elements: Two wave reflectors. Attached to the central platform these act to focus the incoming waves. The main platform. This is a floating reservoir with a doubly curved ramp facing the incoming waves. The waves overtop the ramp which has a variable crest freeboard 1 to 4 m and underneath the platform open chambers operate as an air cushion maintaining the level of the reservoir. Hydro turbines. A set of low head turbines converts the hydraulic head in the reservoir (Tedd James et al., 2005) 3.3.2.1 Overtopping theory The theory for modeling overtopping devices varies greatly from the traditional linear systems approach used by most other WECs. A linear systems approach may be used with overtopping devices. This considers the water oscillating up and down the ramp as the excited body, and the crest of the ramp as a highly non-linear power take off system. However due to the non-linearities it is too computationally demanding to model usefully. Therefore a more physical approach is taken. Figure 4 shows the schematic of flows for the Wave Dragon. Depending on the current wave state (HS, Tp) and the crest freeboard Rc(height of the ramp crest above mean water level, MWL) of the device, water will overtop into the reservoir Qovertopping. The power gathered by the reservoir is a product of this overtopping flow, the crest freeboard and gravity. If the reservoir is over filled when a large volume is deposited in the basin there will be loss from it Qspill. To minimize this, the reservoir level h must be kept below its maximum level hR. The useful hydraulic power converted by the turbines is the product of turbine flow Qturbine, the head across them, water density and gravity (Tedd James et al., 2005). In coastal engineering the average flow Q is converted into non dimensional form by dividing by the breadth of the device b, gravity g and the significant wave height HS: In the case of the floating OTD it has been seen that there is a dependency on the wave period. The dominant physical explanation for this is the effect of energy passing beneath the draft of the structure. Figure 6 Layout of OTD 3.3.2.2 Wave Reflector Wings One of the most distinctive aspects of the Overtopping WEC is the long slender wings mounted to the front corners of the reservoir platform. These are designed to reflect the oncoming waves towards the ramp. A wider section of wave is available to be exploited with only a moderate increase in capital cost. The overtopping volume in a wave is very dependent on the wave height; therefore by providing only a moderate increase in height, much more energy can overtop the ramp. In order to choose the correct lengths, angles, and position of these wings extensive computer modelling is used. Secondary bonuses of the presence of the wave reflector wings include: better weather-vaning performance to face the waves, lower peak mooring forces, and improved horizontal stability of the main platform. As the aft and rear mooring attachment points are separated further, the yaw of the platform is more stable. Therefore the device will not turn away from the predominant wave direction, and will also realign itself faster as when the wave direction changes (Tedd James et al., 2005). Lastly the reflectors wings act as stabilisers to the device. As they float under their own buoyancy they counteract any list of the platform. This is important as the more horizontal the platform is kept the less water is spilt and so the more efficient the device operation. 3.3.2.3 Low Head Turbines and Power Train Turbine operating conditions in a WEC are quite different from the ones in a normal hydro power plant. In the OTD, the turbine head range is typically between 1.0 and 4.0 m, which is on the lower bounds of existing water turbine experience. While there are only slow and relatively small variations of flow and head in a river hydro power plant, the strong stochastic variations of the wave overtopping call for a radically different mode of operation in the OTD. The head, being a function of the significant wave height, is varying in a range as large as 1:4, and the discharge has to be regulated within time intervals as short as ten seconds in order to achieve a good efficiency of the energy exploitation (Tedd James et al., 2005). On an unmanned offshore device, the environmental conditions are much rougher, and routine maintenance work is much more difficult to perform. Special criteria for the choice and construction of water turbines for the WEC have to be followed; it is advisable to aim for constructional simplicity rather than maximum peak efficiency. Figure 6 shows the application ranges of the known turbine types in a graph of head H vs. rotational speed nq. The specific speed nq is a turbine parameter characterizing the relative speed of a turbine, thus giving an indication of the turbines power density. Evidently, all turbine types except the Pelton and the cross flow type are to be found in a relatively narrow band running diagonally across the graph. Transgressing the left or lower border means that the turbine will run too slowly, thus being unnecessarily large and expensive. The right or upper border is defined by technological limits, namely material strength and the danger of cavitations erosion. The Pelton and the cross-flow turbine do not quite follow these rules, as they have a runner which is running in air and is only partially loaded with a free jet of water. Thus, they have a lower specific speed and lower power density. Despite its simplicity and robustness, the cross flow turbine is not very suitable for OTD applications (Tedd James et al., 2005). Figure 7 Head range of the common turbine types, Voith and Ossberger 3.3.2.4 Performance in Storms Survivability is essential, and Overtopping devices are naturally adapted to perform well in storm situations, where the wave will pass over and under the device with no potential end-stop problems. 3.3.2.5 Wave Prediction Performance of almost all wave energy converters can be improved with prediction of the incoming waves. The cost to implement would be low as the control hardware is typically in place, only the measuring system and improved control techniques need to be developed. To explain the concept behind the device a simple example can be used. If a measurement of some wavelengths ahead of the wave energy converter shows large waves passing, then at a given time later this energy will be incident on the device. The control of the device can then be altered quickly to extract this larger energy, e.g. by increasing hydraulic resistance to an oscillator’s motion allowing more energy to be captured within the stroke length, or by draining the reservoir of an overtopping device to allow for a large overtopping volume(Tedd James et al., 2005). The challenges are threefold; to implement a system for measuring the waves approaching the ramp, to accurately transform this into usable input for the control systems, and to construct new control strategies to make the best use of this. The standard approach for performing such deterministic sea-state prediction involves discrete frequency domain techniques. This is computationally intensive, as the two Fourier transforms must be made to convert from the time domain to the frequency domain and return to the time domain. 3.4 Energy Capture and Practical Limits The power captured from waves by the primary mechanical conversion (before secondary conversion to electrical power) can be related to the energy in the incoming waves over a certain width. Theoretical values have been established in some cases. For a heaving axi-symmetric body the maximum capture width is the inverse of the wave number. The capture width is often compared to the front width of the device. This width ratio can be larger than one for a point absorber with small dimensions compared to the wavelength. Viscous effects reduce efficiency. For an OWC, Wang et al. (2002) found that the capture width ratio may reach a value of 3 and above at an optimum wave period. For Pelamis, Retlzler et al. (2001) found a capture width up to 2 in regular waves and around one in random seas (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). A continuous or a semi discrete array of wave energy converters acting as an absorbing wall perpendicular to the wave direction is called a terminator and its capture width equals the width of the device and is not related to the length of the incident waves. As the wave conditions are stochastic, the tuning parameters of the energy converters are compromises between the optimum values at various sea conditions. The capture width must be established for each sea state. Fixed devices are subject to sea level variation according to tidal effects. This is critical for fixed oscillating water columns and fixed overtopping systems whose performances are dependent on the mean sea level. The intake of an OWC must be located at an optimised design level from the mean free surface. The height of an overtopping system is also optimised for sea states occurring at a given mean sea level. Therefore, sites with minimal tide are preferred. From this point of view floating devices are more suitable. The immersion of a floating device can also be tuned with respect to the actual sea state. For instance the Wave Dragon overtopping device is partially floating on air chambers and its draught can be modified (Specialist Committee V.4, 2006). The performance of the overtopping device is sensitive to the distribution of the overtopping rate. The more variable the overtopping flow into the reservoir, the larger the capacity of the reservoir and turbines must be to achieve the same performance. 4.0 Mooring Requirements The two major requirements for a WEC mooring are to withstand the environmental and other loadings involved in keeping the device on station, and to be sufficiently cost effective so that the overall economics of the device remain viable. The following list shows the requirements that need to be considered for WEC moorings systems (Harris Robert E. et al.): The primary purpose of the mooring system is to maintain the floating structure on station within specified tolerances under normal operating load and extreme storm load conditions. The excursion of the device must not permit tension loads in the electrical transmission cable(s) and should allow for suitable specified clearance distances between devices in multiple installations. The mooring system must be sufficiently compliant to the environmental loading to reduce the forces acting on anchors, mooring lines and the device itself to a minimum; unless the stiffness of the mooring itself is an active element in the wave energy conversion principle used. All components must have adequate strength, fatigue life and durability for the operational lifetime, and marine growth and corrosion need to be considered. A degree of redundancy is highly desirable for individual devices, and essential for schemes which link several devices together. The system as a whole should be capable of lasting for 30 years or more, with replacement of particular components at no less than 5 years. The mooring must be sufficient to accommodate the tidal range at the installation location. The mooring system should allow the removal of single devices without affecting the mooring of adjacent devices. Removal of mooring lines for inspection and maintenance must be possible. The mooring must be sufficiently stiff to allow berthing for inspection and maintenance purposes. Contact between mooring lines must be avoided. The mooring should not adversely affect the efficiency of the device, and if it is part of an active control system it must also be designed dynamically as part of the overall WEC system. Revenues from WECs, in comparison to the offshore industry, are smaller and their economics more strongly linked to the location, installation costs and down time periods. The mooring system has an important impact on the economics and it is necessary to provide, at low installation cost, a reliable system that has little downtime and long intervals between maintenance. The suitability of design approaches from the offshore industry for WECs are ranked in Appendix I (Harris Robert E. et al.). 5.0 Environmental Considerations Conversion of wave energy to electrical or other usable forms of energy is generally anticipated to have limited environmental impacts. However, as with any emerging technology, the nature and extent of environmental considerations remain uncertain. The impacts that would potentially occur are also very site specific, depending on physical and ecological factors that vary considerably for potential ocean sites. As large-scale prototypes and commercial facilities are developed, these factors can be expected to be more precisely defined (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). The following environmental considerations require monitoring (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 2006). Visual appearance and noiseare device-specific, with considerable variability in visible freeboard height and noise generation above and below the water surface. Devices with OWCs and overtopping devices typically have the highest freeboard and are most visible. Offshore devices would require navigation hazard warning devices such as lights, sound signals, radar reflectors, and contrasting day marker painting. However, Coast Guard requirements only require that day markers be visible for 1 nautical mile (1.8 km), and thus offshore device markings would only be seen from shore on exceptionally clear days. The air being drawn in and expelled in OWC devices is likely to be the largest source of above-water noise. Some underwater noise would occur from devices with turbines, hydraulic pumps, and other moving parts. The frequency of the noise may also be a consideration in evaluating noise impacts. Reduction in wave height from wave energy converterscould be a consideration in some settings; however, the impact on wave characteristics would generally only be observed 1 to 2 km away from the WEC device in the direction of the wave travel. Thus there should not be a significant onshore impact if the devices were much more than this distance from the shore. None of the devices currently being developed would harvest a large portion of the wave energy, which would leave a relatively calm surface behind the devices. It is estimated that with current projections, a large wave energy facility with a maximum density of devices would cause the reduction in waves to be on the order of 10 to 15%, and this impact would rapidly dissipate within a few kilometers, but leave a slight lessening of waves in the overall vicinity. Little information is available on the impact on sediment transport or on biological communities from a reduction in wave height offshore. An isolated impact, such as reduced wave height for recreational surfers, could possibly result. Marine habitatcould be impacted positively or negatively depending on the nature of additional submerged surfaces, above-water platforms, and changes in the seafloor. Artificial above-water surfaces could provide habitat for seals and sea lions or nesting areas for birds. Underwater surfaces of WEC devices would provide substrates for various biological systems, which could be a positive or negative complement to existing natural habitats. With some WEC devices, it may be necessary to control the growth of marine organisms on some surfaces. Toxic releasesmay be of concern related to leaks or accidental spills of liquids used in systems with working hydraulic fluids. Any impacts could be minimized through the selection of nontoxic fluids and careful monitoring, with adequate spill response plans and secondary containment design features. Use of biocides to control growth of marine organisms may also be a source of toxic releases. Conflict with other sea space users, such as commercial shipping and fishing and recreational boating, can occur without the careful selection of sites for WEC devices. The impact can potentially be positive for recreational and commercial fisheries if the devices provide for additional biological habitats. Installation and Decommissioning: Disturbances from securing the devices to the ocean floor and installation of cables may have negative impacts on marine habitats. Potential decommissioning impacts are primarily related to disturbing marine habitats that have adapted to the presence of the wave energy structures. 6.0 Discussions A vast number of parameters influence (and interact with) the net power production from any WEC: Overtopping, determined by Free-board (adjustable in Wave Dragons) Actual wave height Physical dimension of the converter (ramps, reflectors etc. Outlet, determined by Size of reservoir Turbine design Turbine on/off strategy Mooring system, free or restricted orientation toward waves Size of the energy converter Wave climate Energy in wave front (kW/m) Distribution of wave heights Availability Theoretical availability; Reliability, maintainability, serviceab

International Marketing Environment

International Marketing Environment In this report we are primarily focusing on the issues of marketing a product or a service internationally. The rise of globalization has eased many of the issues that were a hindrance on international trade in the past but at the same time new laws and regulations have replaced the conventional method of doing international trade with more sophisticated but complicated systems as well. The following points have been covered in the report for the literature review of our research which focuses majorly on the global marketing environment and the impact of culture in the international marketing environment. International marketing overview Cross-cultural influence on international marketing strategies Marketing challenges in globalization Ethics in international marketing E-marketing a new paradigm in international marketing Role of branding in international marketing Export-import marketing Standardising global marketing strategy Globalization affecting the economies of different nations International Marketing Environment and Cultural Environment The world has become globalized and international marketing takes place all around us every day. It has a major effect on our lives and offers new opportunities and challenges. International marketing is a tool used to obtain advancement in ones present position and its transaction takes place across national borders highlights the difference between domestic and international marketing. The area of international marketing strategy refers to using a common product, price, distribution and promotion program on a worldwide basis. Setting up business in new market and positioning the product requires extensive knowledge of environment, as well as risk, threats and opportunities might present. It is very important for a business to understand effective marketing, as what may work for one company may not work for them. The company entering in to new market must access the potential of different countries and involves three levels of analysis: The macro-level analysis of the national envir onment; analysis of the consumer market in general; and micro-level analysis of factors affecting the specific product (Morrison, 2009). Assessment at the Macro-level looks at geographic features, economic indicators, demographic data, social and economic structure, and the political environment. The economic data includes the GDP growth rate of a country that how big the market is for trade. Demographic data shows the age distribution of the population as the worlds developed economies have large segment of young population. The social and economic factors indicate what types of employment are prevalent, what opportunity exists for social mobility and what role family networks plays in society. The political factor includes the level of political stability and legal protection afforded to property, including intellectual property. Cultural factor give a judgments the capacity and taste of the customer, for e.g. the countries based on Hinduism and Islamism religion face drop of the sale of meat products during holy festivals, where in U.S and other European countries during Christmas the sale of meat, wine and electro nics are at peak (Czinkota Ronkainen, 2007). Micro-level analysis includes the ease of entry and its costs, the extent of competitors present and the substitute and the upcoming new competitors, and the profit potential. Entering a new market through exporting is less costly than FDI. Retailers recognize a physical presence of the brand in the foreign market. This is less costly for a small business like boutique and fast-food outlet than a large concept of hypermarket. As the large retailing operation is a costly and complex investment. An analysis of competitors will show the degree of concentration and the extent to which foreign investors are active (Czinkota Ronkainen, 2007). Culture influences every part of the business, including the type of products, the way of people relate to each other in organization, staff communication and the values and the goals of the organization. Culture is an important component in the organizations relation that how it relates with other firm, their employees, customers and with an array of stakeholders group. International marketing is often not as simple as marketing your product to more than one nation. Companies have to consider language barriers, ideals, and customers in the market they approaching. It takes lot of planning and strategy to attract the specific group of people you are attempting to sell to be highly important and can serve the number one cause of failure or success (Boone, Kurtz, Mackenzie, Snow, 2007). An established, culture plays vital role in the field of international marketing. Of all the aspects language must be the main and biggest barriers a company has to face when it becomes global. A good communication must be set between the company, its customers, suppliers, employees, stakeholder and government of the foreign country where an organization is settling up its business. Language plays very significant role in culture as English is the globally accepted language but sometime can create misunderstandings. Even after knowing the language sometimes misunderstandings can happen like for e.g. in India, due to difference in pronunciation the sentence lack of rupees may sound laky of rupees. As the significance of language is ascertained, its impact on the elements of the international Marketing mix is indisputable. As the marketing mix should in itself be a product of understanding the consumer, keeping in mind that language is an integral part of that consumer, it follows that mastering the nuances of the new markets language helps the organization to target its marketing mix, namely product, price, distribution and communication, more closely on the potential consumer (Morrison, 2009). Modern organisations across the world are going to great lengths to incorporate customer care as in the integral part of their organisational culture. Staying close to the customer is now considered to be an essential part of any organisations strategy towards ensuring greater sales for example, described the case where a workflow management system is used by an organisation to strengthen the organisational culture towards greater customer orientation, quality of services and performance. (K, Chakrabarty, Whitten, 2007). Values, belief and assumption are the most valuable facets any culture and connecting to the people by their belief is the key ingredient to connecting your idea to people. The culture has become more significant in outward expression in recent years, facilitated by the growth of global media. Outward expression of culture can be seen through television, art, music and buildings. In society, organisations logo, jingle, promotion adds and symbols identify the firm and project its image and value to the customer. Some countries have subcultures and more than one culture exist it gets very crucial for the organisation in term of marketing to send its message to everyone without hurting anyone cultural emotion and values. For e.g. the country like India have many cultures and have big population of major religion of the world i.e. Christian, Muslims, Hindus and Buddhism. So while promoting any product it is important to connect everyone without hurting anyone. Business need to review the important strategy of the four Ps, which are product, place, price and promotion. (Dominici, 2009). Cultural change also depends on economic development and varies from place to place as shifts from rural to urban environments. The economic condition of a consumer is better in urban area than rural and so on market also varies of this factor that where is the right location to be set for the brand. Moving away from rural area to city represents a radical shift in a way of life, not just economically, but also in terms of social and cultural implications. The people living in urban area lead much better life style than rural and so on the market for luxuries goods and products have space where as the rural population like to live on basic amenities and do not spent much on luxury. In developed world, over 80% of people now live in cities. Better education is very essential for any country growth. More the population will be educated; the infrastructure will grow more with new technology. As the educated generation have more adaptation ability to adapt new technology and can be compe titive in environment. Setting up business in any market look for the qualified staff, so the cultural environment matters that qualified staff availability is sufficient. As world is moving to new technology and everyone communicate through fast and shortest way from million miles away in e-marketing world. The Successful e-marketing strategies in international markets will depend on existing infrastructure and marketing institution. E-marketing reduces the manpower cost and reaches to customer quick and can have access anytime. The globe is becoming closer with contribution of new technologies and experiments (Sheth Sharma, 2005). Literature Review: In the following section of the report we have divided the subjects under different headings which give an overview of the factors which covers international marketing of products and services and the way globalization is making the whole world combined into a single trading platform. Following is the literature review of our research findings which is given in a sequential manner which relates to the international marketing environment and the effects of globalization. International marketing overview: (J4) identified two prospects of the international marketing area based on a review of several thousand journals; the dimensions identified are management or marketing and business environment. Given that these dimensions or the part of the similar areas help to differentiate between different types of research, it is clear that business environmental research is a very important area of study; more usually addressed by business and management rather than marketing journals. This shortfall in environmental research output lacks the relevance in the spectrum of research, obviously needed by those carrying out international marketing. Other issues or dimensions related to environmental analysis that is needed to be investigated further and beyond includes the impact of the changing environment on individual companies of different sizes and from different sectors. Market definition can be put in the activity of environmental scanning and it supports the belief or notion that historical analysis is important for the proper understanding of development, international relations with overseas countries and trade. (J19) Similarly an equally important area is the contemporary framework to understand and acquire the knowledge of how changes in the economic, political, social, technological, legal and environmental context of doing international marketing impacts on the results and success of a companys products or services if a sector wise International marketing is done for its products or services. For example, marketing to Iraq in the light of the recent war would most certainly be predicted to be that the proper contingency planning became paramount in marketing departments operating in this market. Forecasts become redundant, distribution channels may have been completely destroyed; networks might have been broken up and the market might have been seriously undermined. Some companies will have ceased operations altogether for the duration. In the above schematic diagram, it has been stated that for international marketing environment analysis, the main division has to be in the form of micro-analysis and macro-analysis, where micro-analysis relates to the regional market of the business and macro-analysis relates to the global trade. (J3) Cross-cultural influence on international marketing strategies: The international marketing scenario has to consider the impact of cultural influences on the business when the business enter in a new market that means a foreign land where there might be cultural differences from the home land. In an era of globalization and global business activity, understanding the cross-market applicability of the susceptibility of the adoption of new products becomes a matter of increased importance, as even companies and service sector firms highly successful in their domestic operations (e.g. launching products) often fall aback when they expand their operations internationally. For example, Kellogg entered into India in the late-1990s. Indian consumers did not pay much attention to breakfast cereals because most consumers either prepared breakfast from food related with starch, so every morning they grabbed some biscuits with tea. Thus, like many of its counterparts, Kelloggs expansion to India proved unsuccessful, and, after three years in the market, sales stood at $10 million (J18). It is well documented in many articles and books that culture of a particular land can have a strong influence on consumers thoughts and actions. Hence, culture can potentially have a significant influence on consumers, which also influences things like word-of-mouth and the behavior through its influence on individual values and group norms. (J7) Similarly, there is also an increased level of criticism where insistence on contrasting national cultures are compared in terms of relatively simple binaries such as differences in individualist versus collectivist culture. (J8) International Marketing Success Corruption Relationship Oriented Culture Cultural distance Physical distance Consumer Resources In the above diagram, it can be depicted that all international markets are not the same. There are some areas where international trade has corruption, nepotism, and favoritism inside them. Relationship oriented culture leads to corruption for example, if a person has contacts with the member of judicial system, then laws wont be as strict for him as it would be for others to setup a business or get any work done. Then again, relationship oriented culture leads to consumer resources which in turn give success to international marketing strategies. The physical distance of the entrepreneur and the cultural distance doesnt matter in this case that much since nepotism is prevalent in a scenario where relationship oriented culture acts for international marketing success. (J9) Marketing challenges in globalization: One of the most important reasons to examine the attitude of firms to that of the marketing challenges of globalization is the diversity of firms size, industry environments and strategy. Since organizations and companies vary in terms of size, membership of the industry and the competitive strategy of that particular industry and their executives which vary in terms of their characteristic even different organizations may perceive and respond to the same marketing environmental patterns differently hence giving a hint of serious implications and challenges for organizational actions and performance. Furthermore, many existing literature supports the view that top managers need to deal with the impact of the industry environment and that of globalization in a judicial frame. (J10) Regardless where the firm belongs it will be on the path towards globalization, hence it must respond to the forces shaping the global environment and the marketing challenges they present. The nature of the marketing challenges is precise and it continues to change and the form they will take in the twenty-first century remains most uncertain. It is however clear that to be successful in the future as well in the present scenario the firm must be an even more astute marketer than in the past. An effective global strategy depicts the necessity to respond quickly and appropriately to opportunities and challenges locally and internationally. (J10) Ethics in international marketing: It is accepted that the wave of globalization is an unavoidable process and will progress forever. All business that firms desire to compete successfully in international environment has to obey to the legal and ethical rules and regulations. So to behave in an ethically and socially responsible manner there should be a hallmark of every marketer`s behaviour, domestically or internationally Hence it requires little thought for most of us to know the social responsibility and or ethically correct response to questions about breaking the law, destroying the environment, denying someones rights, taking unfair advantage, or behaving in a manner that would bring bodily harm or damage. The best guide to good international marketing ethics is: Do not direct intentional harm. Produce more good than harm for the host country. Respect the rights of employees and of all others affected by one`s actions or policies. To the extent consistent with ethical norms, respect the local culture and work with and not against it. Multinationals should pay their fair share of taxes and cooperate with the local governments in developing equitable laws and other background institutions E-marketing a new paradigm in international marketing: The introduction of e-marketing or e-business creates a fundamental shift in the behavior of consumers and the strategies of international marketing. It also adds to an increase level of complexity to the arena of international marketing. However, the specific infrastructure for e-marketing strategies of a country for its different stages suggests us for targeted strategic development of e-business implementation in different countries. (J22) E-marketing is different in terms from general marketing strategies. The market is open for all and uses a very wide platform i.e. the internet, so cultural differences; environmental factors are not taken into consideration often. The primary advantages of e-marketing which gives an edge over traditional formulas of marketing is reducing costs and enhancing reach. The cost of the platform for e-marketing is typically lower than the other marketing platforms such as face-to-face salespeople or middlemen/distributors. E-marketing platforms increase the boundaries for reach and reduce the costs by providing three areas of advantage for customers. First, the marketing firm can provide unlimited information to customers where there is no requirement of human capital. Second, the e-marketing firms can create customized information for individual customers that allow customers to choose and design products and services that meet their specific requirements. Finally, e-marketing platforms c an allow transactions between customers and firms which again typically do not require human capital; there are virtual modes of communication and payments. (J22) Role of branding in international marketing: Branding has tremendous potential for international marketing. However, this potential has not been fulfilled for a number of reasons. Much of the analysis and commentary are at normative level, which debates the relative merits of a global versus local approach to international branding. Additionally, the relatively few empirical studies states that global branding often take a narrow approach to branding, as narrow as just the brand name. These limitations presents the point of separation from the current study that takes a more comprehensive and strategic approach to the role of branding in the market that goes international. The pivotal role of international marketing strategy is acknowledged as a driving force in internationalisation. Using such a pivot, makes a reference to performance measure which is included in the recognition of the role of branding in assessing international performance. Further, a new approach is developing in terms of how branding contributes to more eff ective marketing strategy. Specifically, there are two mechanisms that are added beyond what the existing global branding literature has considered. Firstly, light is thrown on branding-related managerial cognition, which is termed as brand orientation. Secondly, international brand repositioning is also considered as a contributor to the performance.. (J24) Export Import marketing: International business which relates to trading of commodities from one country to the other is called export-import marketing. Export managers and researchers are mostly concerned with basic aspects of firm survival in the international business arena which relates to product quality while overlooking some important points like product innovation and relationship management. Firms that have established or have good relationship with their importers are more likely to realize the potential of their product and the market. Relationship capabilities enable firms to improve the product, come out with innovation hence enhancing the product quality which altogether turns into good export performance enhancement. (J12) EMO behavior Degree of internationalization Export performance Export market dynamism EMO behavior-squared The diagram above presents the conceptual model for the export market orientation (EMO) behaviour which relates to export success. The model proposes a positive linear relationship between EMO and export success. It also represents the hypothesis that EMO shares a non-linear relationship to export success (which is negative quadratic). So it is arguable that the relationship of EMO and export success whether it is linear or non-linear is dependent of market dynamism and the international strategy the firm pursues. (J13) In the world of big multinationals companies, it is a question of thought whether small and medium size enterprises can survive in the export-import arena. Small firms that tend to export larger output perform better. As a result, they accumulate knowledge and result in competitive advantage. But all small firms are not capable of doing large output because all the firms dont have equal level of efficiency in export import process. (J15) Standardizing global marketing strategy: As there have been differences in the thoughts and interpretations of what standardization is, there have also been differences among researchers on the advantages or disadvantages of standardization, and whether standardization is an appropriate strategy or not. The main argument is in favour of standardization which states that the forces of globalization driven by technology were homogenizing markets and that marketers needs to take advantage of this trend by following a standardized marketing strategy. Also primarily focussing on Triad market consisting of the USA, Japan, and Europe suggested that these markets are fairly homogeneous and since these markets were amongst the major markets in terms of share for the world economy that it was concluded that a strategy of standardization was the appropriate one to follow. (J26) The concept of strategic fit provides the theoretical foundation for the study of performance consequences of international marketing standardization. The strategic fit paradigm explains the necessity of maintaining a consistent link between the strategy of the firm and the context within which the strategy has been implemented. The bottom line of the core-proposition is matching the marketing strategy with the marketing environment leads to a superior performance. The concept of strategic fit has played a key role in development of strategic management and organization theory fields. (J25) Globalization affecting the economies of different nations: Firms that align the type of sourcing strategy with that of the knowledge intensive business services (KIBS) attribute should perform significantly better than those that do not achieve the requisite match, thus, managers of firms should realize that the key to superior performance is to have a strategic fit between sourcing the strategy and sourcing the attributes, and it is not to have particularly sourcing strategy or attributes alone in the place. (J14) Globalization has made cross-border business deals easier than ever. The world is getting smaller. Not in a geographical sense, but in a business sense. Starting businesses in foreign markets is increasingly popular these days. With the advent of e-mail, video teleconferencing, the Internet and e-commerce, businesses are no longer restricted to operations in a sole location. Improved trade, favorable tax rates, labor and centers of excellence have almost made it a necessity to have offices or strategic alliances in more than one country. The global economy is a world of new opportunities. Critique of the Literature Marketing and business environment are two particular dimensions which help to differentiate between different types of research, it is clear that business environmental research is a very important area of study; more usually addressed by business and management rather than marketing journals. (J4) Hence the author mainly focuses on the two paradigms in the wide world of international business which are thought to be the pivotal roles for successful and pivotal roles for international marketing roles. According to us marketing is an obvious and important part of International business and so is business environment, but what we feel is the political, economical and environmental aspects are also to be taken into consideration when a wide aspect like International business is taken into consideration, also it is will be ambiguous in our part if we do not interpret what consists under the business environment and whether it has all the required points like social, political, environme ntal etc. In the second aspect author is trying to state that the issues or dimensions related to environmental analysis which are needed to be investigated further and beyond includes the impact of the changing environment on individual companies of different sizes and from different sectors.(J19) And according to us it is an indispensable factor for any kind of business or sole entrepreneurs, that they have to accept change and specifically the environmental change which the businesses of all ranges and sizes goes through with the passage of time assuming that the environmental change also includes price range fluctuation of commodities and services , cultural change in the society and the change in governing policies. As discussed above the author (J3) states in this one that political, economical, societal, technological, legal and environmental changes has to be taken into account when a business is looking forward or searching for its target market in an overseas environment. In an era of globalization and global business activity, understanding the cross-market applicability of the susceptibility of the adoption of new products becomes a matter of increased importance. (J18) and of course it has to be effective and proper understanding is required because change is a constant factor in business environment and if a business cannot accept change then in the long run it might result in the dismal failure of its foundation. (J7) Individualist and collectivist thoughts have to an integral part of International business and are basically the two sides of the coin when taking into consideration the strategies for international business. (J8) As stated by the author that success in International Marketing leads to level increase in corruption and bribery is actually a true thought and is very much prevalent in many countries around the globe (J9) where business is acquired by peer pressure of the powerful and oppression techniques, in these cases product quality, diversity, individual rights are not at all taken into consideration and is actually termed as business malpractice. It usually becomes a success strategy mainly in those countries where corruption is predominantly popular. It might not be the same of advanced countries and might work the very opposite way. (j22) Diversity of the firm size has to be taken into consideration when globalization is put as a forward question for the firm. (J 10) And according to us more diverse the firms ability to accommodate itself in terms of size the greater the output for the business. E-marketing has a new way of marketing there product internationally (J22) and it is of course a new way for marketing of products and it creates a very big and broad platform for the people who wants to market the product in overseas land or internationally. And even the strategies should be different when e-marketing are taken into consideration. According to the author branding is an important part of International marketing strategies but it cannot be a success measure for the business or cannot be used for in success when a product is launched internationally. According to us the literature holds a bit of contradiction as branding may not always work but there are cases where the brand name of the product drives it success whether its in a local market or in overseas. (J24) Export market orientation (EMO) behaviour which relates to export success and it shares a positive linear equation between them. (J13). It actually holds a lot relevance and export market orientation can be equated to the basic foundation of the export business. Where they make analysis on the different markets, different customer trends , different product analysis. It gives and covers all the areas of Political, Environmental, Societal, Technological, Legal and Environmental scenarios and analysis for a successful export trade. The average of all the above factors gives the company or its product the degree of internationalization that it has got. Mainly focussing on Triad market consisting of the USA, Japan, and Europe suggested that these markets are fairly homogeneous and since these markets were amongst the major markets in terms of share for the world economy that it was concluded that a strategy of standardization was the appropriate one to follow. (J26). Standardizing global marketing strategies might not always work as each market is new, as the nation is new and hence a rule of thumb which works for the triad might not work with other markets. Although a standardized marketing approach can be obtained on generic products like wheat, flour or petroleum but commodities that holds a niche value might not respond to the theory of standardizing global markets. Globalisation has already changed many of the world economies and obviously there needs to have a strategic fit where businesses should be knowing the key to sourcing the strategy and sourcing the attributes and also finding out the superiority of each other.